{"id":16464,"date":"2019-04-02T16:29:15","date_gmt":"2019-04-02T14:29:15","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/www.discoverwalks.com\/blog\/?p=16464"},"modified":"2023-03-16T11:03:49","modified_gmt":"2023-03-16T10:03:49","slug":"all-about-the-elusive-fernando-pessoa","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/www.discoverwalks.com\/blog\/all-about-the-elusive-fernando-pessoa\/","title":{"rendered":"All About the Elusive Fernando Pessoa"},"content":{"rendered":"<h2 class=\"p1\"><span class=\"s1\"><b>All About the Elusive Fernando Pessoa<\/b><\/span><\/h2><div id=\"disco-3883329996\" class=\"disco-social-pug-2019 disco-entity-placement\"><p><div  class=\"dpsp-shortcode-wrapper dpsp-shape-rounded dpsp-size-medium dpsp-column-auto dpsp-has-spacing dpsp-has-buttons-count dpsp-show-on-mobile dpsp-button-style-6\"><ul class=\"dpsp-networks-btns-wrapper dpsp-networks-btns-share dpsp-networks-btns-content dpsp-column-auto \" style=\"padding:0;margin:0;list-style-type:none\">\n<li class=\"dpsp-network-list-item dpsp-network-list-item-facebook\" style=\"float:left\">\n\t<a rel=\"nofollow noopener\" href=\"https:\/\/www.facebook.com\/sharer\/sharer.php?u=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.discoverwalks.com%2Fblog%2Fall-about-the-elusive-fernando-pessoa%2F&#038;t=All%20About%20the%20Elusive%20Fernando%20Pessoa\" class=\"dpsp-network-btn dpsp-facebook dpsp-has-count dpsp-first dpsp-has-label\" target=\"_blank\" aria-label=\"Share on Facebook\" title=\"Share on Facebook\" style=\"font-size:14px;padding:0rem;max-height:40px\" >\t<span class=\"dpsp-network-icon \">\n\t\t<span class=\"dpsp-network-icon-inner\" ><svg version=\"1.1\" xmlns=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/2000\/svg\" width=\"32\" height=\"32\" viewBox=\"0 0 18 32\"><path d=\"M17.12 0.224v4.704h-2.784q-1.536 0-2.080 0.64t-0.544 1.92v3.392h5.248l-0.704 5.28h-4.544v13.568h-5.472v-13.568h-4.544v-5.28h4.544v-3.904q0-3.328 1.856-5.152t4.96-1.824q2.624 0 4.064 0.224z\"><\/path><\/svg><\/span>\n\t<\/span>\n\t<span class=\"dpsp-network-label\">Share<\/span><span class=\"dpsp-network-count\">78<\/span><\/a><\/li>\n\n<li class=\"dpsp-network-list-item dpsp-network-list-item-pinterest\" style=\"float:left\">\n\t<button rel=\"nofollow noopener\" data-href=\"https:\/\/pinterest.com\/pin\/create\/button\/?url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.discoverwalks.com%2Fblog%2Fall-about-the-elusive-fernando-pessoa%2F&#038;media=&#038;description=All%20About%20the%20Elusive%20Fernando%20Pessoa\" class=\"dpsp-network-btn dpsp-pinterest dpsp-last dpsp-has-label\" target=\"_blank\" aria-label=\"Save to Pinterest\" title=\"Save to Pinterest\" style=\"font-size:14px;padding:0rem;max-height:40px\" >\t<span class=\"dpsp-network-icon \">\n\t\t<span class=\"dpsp-network-icon-inner\" ><svg version=\"1.1\" xmlns=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/2000\/svg\" width=\"32\" height=\"32\" viewBox=\"0 0 23 32\"><path d=\"M0 10.656q0-1.92 0.672-3.616t1.856-2.976 2.72-2.208 3.296-1.408 3.616-0.448q2.816 0 5.248 1.184t3.936 3.456 1.504 5.12q0 1.728-0.32 3.36t-1.088 3.168-1.792 2.656-2.56 1.856-3.392 0.672q-1.216 0-2.4-0.576t-1.728-1.568q-0.16 0.704-0.48 2.016t-0.448 1.696-0.352 1.28-0.48 1.248-0.544 1.12-0.832 1.408-1.12 1.536l-0.224 0.096-0.16-0.192q-0.288-2.816-0.288-3.36 0-1.632 0.384-3.68t1.184-5.152 0.928-3.616q-0.576-1.152-0.576-3.008 0-1.504 0.928-2.784t2.368-1.312q1.088 0 1.696 0.736t0.608 1.824q0 1.184-0.768 3.392t-0.8 3.36q0 1.12 0.8 1.856t1.952 0.736q0.992 0 1.824-0.448t1.408-1.216 0.992-1.696 0.672-1.952 0.352-1.984 0.128-1.792q0-3.072-1.952-4.8t-5.12-1.728q-3.552 0-5.952 2.304t-2.4 5.856q0 0.8 0.224 1.536t0.48 1.152 0.48 0.832 0.224 0.544q0 0.48-0.256 1.28t-0.672 0.8q-0.032 0-0.288-0.032-0.928-0.288-1.632-0.992t-1.088-1.696-0.576-1.92-0.192-1.92z\"><\/path><\/svg><\/span>\n\t<\/span>\n\t<span class=\"dpsp-network-label\">Pin<\/span><\/button><\/li>\n<\/ul><\/div><br \/>\n&nbsp;<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div id=\"attachment_16467\" style=\"width: 439px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.discoverwalks.com\/blog\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/04\/pessoa_chapeu.jpg\"><img decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-16467\" class=\"size-full wp-image-16467\" src=\"https:\/\/www.discoverwalks.com\/blog\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/04\/pessoa_chapeu.jpg\" alt=\"Fernando Pessoa in 1914\" width=\"429\" height=\"599\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.discoverwalks.com\/blog\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/04\/pessoa_chapeu.jpg 429w, https:\/\/www.discoverwalks.com\/blog\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/04\/pessoa_chapeu-215x300.jpg 215w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 429px) 100vw, 429px\" \/><\/a><p id=\"caption-attachment-16467\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Fernando Pessoa in 1914 &#8211; WikiCommons<\/p><\/div>\n<p class=\"p3\"><span class=\"s1\">Portuguese poet Fernando Pessoa is probably most famous for putting <a href=\"https:\/\/www.discoverwalks.com\/blog\/the-best-of-portuguese-literature\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">Portuguese literature<\/a> on the map internationally. He is also known for Modernist poetry, a literary movement that occurred in the early 20th century. Modernist poetry happens to be the subject of my thesis for my master\u2019s degree, and after months and months of reading and researching, I\u2019m well on my way to becoming an expert, I\u2019m happy to say.<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"p3\"><span class=\"s1\">Pessoa\u2019s name popped up many times in my hours of studying, and for good reason! Pessoa wrote under no less than 70 heteronyms or alternative personas, and each persona not only held a different name but also a different style of writing.<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"p3\"><span class=\"s1\">Keep reading to learn more about this Portuguese master of words, Fernando Pessoa.<\/span><\/p>\n<h4 class=\"p1\"><span class=\"s1\"><b>Fernando Pessoa\u2019s early life<\/b><\/span><\/h4>\n<p class=\"p3\"><span class=\"s1\">Fernando Pessoa was born in 1888 in <a href=\"https:\/\/www.discoverwalks.com\/blog\/lisbon-in-two-hours\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">Lisbon<\/a>. His father died when he was just 5 years old, and his mother quickly remarried thereafter. Pessoa\u2019s new stepfather worked for the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.discoverwalks.com\/blog\/top-10-fun-facts-about-portuguese-people\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">Portuguese<\/a> consulate in Durban, South Africa, and from ages 7 until 17, the Pessoa lived with his family in Durban. <\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"p3\"><span class=\"s1\">It was here, in South Africa, that Pessoa mastered the English language. Portuguese may have been his first language, but all in all, he only published one book of poems in his mother tongue. <\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"p3\"><span class=\"s1\">When Pessoa was 13, he traveled back to Portugal and stayed there for one year before heading back to Durban. At 17, he left South Africa for good and began his studies at the University of Lisbon. He quickly decided that school was not for him, and dropped out after 8 months. <\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"p3\"><span class=\"s1\">With more than enough time on his hands and support from various relatives, Pessoa focused solely on writing. <\/span><\/p>\n<h4 class=\"p1\"><span class=\"s1\"><b>Life as a writer<\/b><\/span><\/h4>\n<div id=\"attachment_16468\" style=\"width: 587px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.discoverwalks.com\/blog\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/04\/577px-pessoabaixa.jpg\"><img decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-16468\" class=\"size-full wp-image-16468\" src=\"https:\/\/www.discoverwalks.com\/blog\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/04\/577px-pessoabaixa.jpg\" alt=\"Pessoa in Lisbon\" width=\"577\" height=\"768\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.discoverwalks.com\/blog\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/04\/577px-pessoabaixa.jpg 577w, https:\/\/www.discoverwalks.com\/blog\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/04\/577px-pessoabaixa-225x300.jpg 225w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 577px) 100vw, 577px\" \/><\/a><p id=\"caption-attachment-16468\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Pessoa in Lisbon &#8211; WikiCommons<\/p><\/div>\n<p class=\"p3\"><span class=\"s1\">When Pessoa dropped out of school, he quickly began working odd jobs such as translating, composing business letters, and writing reviews for avant-garde magazines. One magazine in particular, <i>Orpheu, <\/i>was at the head of the Modernist movement in Portugal.<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"p3\"><span class=\"s1\">The Modernist movement in literature can be best described as a moment in literature and art that occurred just after the First World War. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.discoverwalks.com\/blog\/top-5-artists-who-lived-in-paris\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">Artists<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/www.discoverwalks.com\/blog\/top-5-french-writers\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">writers<\/a> felt jaded by the horrors they had witnessed (or had read about in the newspapers), and wanted first and foremost to give up the notion of Romanticism. According to Modernists, Romanticism was filled with clich\u00e9s, and the Modernists wanted to create something new.<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"p3\"><span class=\"s1\">Pessoa had dreams of becoming a celebrated English poet, which is why he wrote the majority of his works in English. He began first in 1912 by writing criticism, then in 1913 and 1914, he began to write Modernist prose and poetry. <\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"p3\"><span class=\"s1\">Although eventually in 1918 Pessoa published his first book of English poetry, <i>Antinous, <\/i>much if not all of his early work appeared in literary newspapers, magazines, and journals. But, by the end of 1918, Pessoa had <i>Antinous <\/i>and his second book, <i>Sonnets<\/i>, under his belt. In 1921, he released his third and final book of English poetry, aptly titled <i>English Poems.<\/i><\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"p3\"><span class=\"s1\">Pessoa published only one book of <a href=\"https:\/\/www.discoverwalks.com\/blog\/top-10-portuguese-dishes-you-should-try\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">Portuguese<\/a> poetry, <i>Mensagem <\/i>(Message in English) in 1933. He died just 2 years later from liver failure, relatively unknown in the literary world. <\/span><\/p>\n<h4 class=\"p1\"><span class=\"s1\"><b>&#8220;Heteronyms&#8221; and Fernando Pessoa\u2019s Legacy<\/b><\/span><\/h4>\n<div id=\"attachment_16469\" style=\"width: 361px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.discoverwalks.com\/blog\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/04\/fernando-pessoa1.jpg\"><img decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-16469\" class=\"size-full wp-image-16469\" src=\"https:\/\/www.discoverwalks.com\/blog\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/04\/fernando-pessoa1.jpg\" alt=\"Fernando Pessoa\" width=\"351\" height=\"387\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.discoverwalks.com\/blog\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/04\/fernando-pessoa1.jpg 351w, https:\/\/www.discoverwalks.com\/blog\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/04\/fernando-pessoa1-272x300.jpg 272w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 351px) 100vw, 351px\" \/><\/a><p id=\"caption-attachment-16469\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Fernando Pessoa between 1905 and 1920 by Vitorino Braga &#8211; WikiCommons<\/p><\/div>\n<p class=\"p3\"><span class=\"s1\">Pessoa gave his entire life to his writing, giving up a normal existence in order to nurture what he called his &#8220;heteronymic project&#8221;. While it is quite common for writers to take up pseudonyms or pen-names, Pessoa took things to a whole new level. <\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"p3\"><span class=\"s1\">Pessoa\u2019s 3 main alter egos were Alberto Caeiro, Ricardo Reis, and \u00c1lvaro de Campos, respectively. Not only did each of the alter egos have very different writing styles, they each had different background stories, and also &#8220;communicated&#8221; with one another through literary reviews and other magazines that Pessoa wrote for. <\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"p3\"><span class=\"s1\">Alberto Caeiro was an uneducated poet who lived in the countryside and mastered free verse. Ricardo Reis was a doctor inspired by the works of Horace and produced emotional ode poetry. \u00c1lvaro de Campos was a bisexual naval engineer living in London who admired Walt Whitman. In comparing the three, Pessoa once wrote: <\/span><\/p>\n<blockquote>\n<p class=\"p3\"><span class=\"s1\">&#8220;Caeiro has one discipline: things must be felt as they are. Ricardo Reis has another kind of discipline: things must be felt, not only as they are, but also so as to fall in with a certain ideal of classic measure and rule. In \u00c1lvaro de Campos things must simply be felt.&#8221;<\/span><\/p>\n<\/blockquote>\n<p class=\"p3\"><span class=\"s1\">All in all, Pessoa has claimed that at least 72 published author\u2019s names were of his own creation.<\/span><\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_16466\" style=\"width: 586px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.discoverwalks.com\/blog\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/04\/576px-lisboa-pessoa-a_brasileira-1.jpg\"><img decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-16466\" class=\"size-full wp-image-16466\" src=\"https:\/\/www.discoverwalks.com\/blog\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/04\/576px-lisboa-pessoa-a_brasileira-1.jpg\" alt=\"Statue in Lisbon dedicated to Pessoa\" width=\"576\" height=\"768\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.discoverwalks.com\/blog\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/04\/576px-lisboa-pessoa-a_brasileira-1.jpg 576w, https:\/\/www.discoverwalks.com\/blog\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/04\/576px-lisboa-pessoa-a_brasileira-1-225x300.jpg 225w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 576px) 100vw, 576px\" \/><\/a><p id=\"caption-attachment-16466\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Statue in Lisbon dedicated to Pessoa by Nol Aders &#8211; WikiCommons<\/p><\/div>\n<p class=\"p3\"><span class=\"s1\">One of Pessoa\u2019s greatest masterpieces was published after his death. <i>The Book of Disquiet<\/i> is one of the rare instances in which Pessoa wrote in Portuguese. The book is credited to one of Pessoa\u2019s heteronyms, Bernardo Soares, and is introduced by Pessoa himself as a &#8220;factless autobiography.&#8221;<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"p3\"><span class=\"s1\">Because the book was published from the unfinished notes of Pessoa nearly 47 years after his death, some critics argue that it is not arranged as the author would have seen fit. Regardless, the book has been translated into 5 different languages, including English, and is a bestseller. <\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"p3\"><span class=\"s1\">Something that I found interesting about T<em>he Book of Disquiet<\/em>, is that in the book there is scene where the main character, Soares, sees Pessoa himself and describes him to the readers. He writes:<\/span><\/p>\n<blockquote>\n<p class=\"p3\"><span class=\"s1\">&#8220;Fairly tall and thin, he must have been about thirty years old. He hunched over terribly when sitting down but less so standing up, and he dressed with a carelessness that wasn\u2019t entirely careless. In his pale, uninteresting face there was a look of suffering that didn\u2019t add any interest, and it was difficult to say just what kind of suffering this look suggested. It seemed to suggest various kinds: hardships, anxieties, and the suffering born of the indifference that comes from having already suffered a lot.&#8221;<\/span><\/p>\n<\/blockquote>\n<p class=\"p3\"><span class=\"s1\">Today, in tribute of Pessoa, there is a statue of the writer, hunched down over a coffee table as he is described above. Visit the statue for yourself at the <strong>Cafe A Brasileira<\/strong> in Lisbon and pay homage to the writer for yourselves!<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"p6\"><span class=\"s2\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.google.fr\/maps\/place\/Caf%C3%A9+A+Brasileira\/@38.7106796,-9.142072,15z\/data=!4m2!3m1!1s0x0:0xf48e931c21c49553?sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwjhssfyyrHhAhX96eAKHdZvAo0Q_BIwDnoECA4QCA\">Cafe A Brasileira<\/a><\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"p6\"><span class=\"s1\">R. Garrett 122, 1200-273 Lisboa, Portugal<\/span><\/p>\n<h4 class=\"p1\"><span class=\"s1\"><b>Conclusion <\/b><\/span><\/h4>\n<p class=\"p3\"><span class=\"s1\">I hope I have inspired you to head out to your local bookstore to try to find some of Fernando Pessoa\u2019s (or one of his alter ego\u2019s) works! I know I\u2019m always on the hunt for an interesting writer to learn more about, so I hoped I\u2019ve sparked your curiosity. <\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"p3\"><span class=\"s1\">If you\u2019re in Lisbon and want to learn more about the city and the famous people that have lived there, why not go on a walking tour with us? <a href=\"https:\/\/www.discoverwalks.com\/tour\/city\/lisbon-walking-tours\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">Click here<\/a> to learn more!<\/span><\/p>\n<div id=\"disco-3017086668\" class=\"disco-amazon-box-2024 disco-entity-placement\"><div style=\"width: 100%; border: 2px solid lightgray; padding: 3% 6% 3% 3%; border-radius: 5px;\">\n<p style=\"text-align: center;\">Planning a trip to Â鶹APP ? Get ready !<\/p>\n<hr style=\"border: 1px solid #c4336e; width: 100%; margin: 5px auto 25px auto;\" \/>\n<p>These are\u00a0<strong>Amazon&#8217;s\u00a0best-selling<\/strong>\u00a0travel products that you may need for coming to Â鶹APP.<\/p>\n<p><span style=\"color: #808080;\"><strong>Bookstore<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\n<ol>\n<li><strong>The best travel book : Rick Steves &#8211; Â鶹APP 2023<\/strong> <strong>&#8211;\u00a0<a class=\"ricksteves1\" href=\"https:\/\/amzn.to\/3rEUV7n\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"nofollow noopener noreferrer\">Learn more here<\/a><\/strong><\/li>\n<li><strong>Fodor&#8217;s Â鶹APP 2024 &#8211;\u00a0<a class=\"lonelyplanet1\" href=\"https:\/\/amzn.to\/3RVYQqV\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"nofollow noopener noreferrer\">Learn more here<\/a><\/strong><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<p><span style=\"color: #808080;\"><strong>Travel Gear<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\n<ol>\n<li><strong>Venture Pal Lightweight Backpack &#8211;\u00a0<a class=\"venturebackpack1\" href=\"https:\/\/amzn.to\/3Fg15xU\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"nofollow noopener noreferrer\">Learn more here<\/a><\/strong><\/li>\n<li><strong>Samsonite Winfield 2 28&#8243; Luggage &#8211;\u00a0<a class=\"samsnonite1\" href=\"https:\/\/amzn.to\/3PTNRM1\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"nofollow noopener noreferrer\">Learn more here<\/a><\/strong><\/li>\n<li><strong>Swig Savvy&#8217;s Stainless Steel Insulated Water Bottle\u00a0&#8211;\u00a0<a class=\"waterbottle1\" href=\"https:\/\/amzn.to\/46GvhhP\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"nofollow noopener noreferrer\">Learn more here<\/a><\/strong><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<p><strong><a class=\"ourtravellist1\" title=\"This external link will open in a new window\" href=\"https:\/\/amzn.to\/2uIsJ55\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"nofollow noopener noreferrer\">Check Amazon\u2019s best-seller list for the most popular travel accessories. <\/a>We sometimes read this list just to find out what new travel products people are buying.<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>All About the Elusive Fernando Pessoa Portuguese poet Fernando Pessoa is probably most famous for putting Portuguese literature on the map internationally. He is also known for Modernist poetry, a literary movement that occurred in the early 20th century. Modernist poetry happens to be the subject of my thesis for my master\u2019s degree, and after [&hellip;]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":1564,"featured_media":16465,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"_acf_changed":false,"footnotes":""},"categories":[1962],"tags":[4233,2457,2464,1139,1897,1898,1129,2453],"class_list":["post-16464","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","has-post-thumbnail","hentry","category-lisbon-portuguese-culture","tag-authors","tag-biography","tag-fernando-pessoa","tag-portugal","tag-portuguese-celebrities","tag-portuguese-literature","tag-portuguese-people","tag-writer"],"acf":[],"followers":[],"followers_count":0,"yoast_head":"<!-- This site is optimized with the Yoast SEO plugin v27.0 - https:\/\/yoast.com\/product\/yoast-seo-wordpress\/ -->\n<title>All About the Elusive Fernando Pessoa - Discover Walks Blog<\/title>\n<meta name=\"robots\" content=\"index, follow, max-snippet:-1, max-image-preview:large, max-video-preview:-1\" \/>\n<link rel=\"canonical\" href=\"https:\/\/www.discoverwalks.com\/blog\/all-about-the-elusive-fernando-pessoa\/\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:locale\" content=\"en_US\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:type\" content=\"article\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:title\" content=\"All About the Elusive Fernando Pessoa - Discover Walks Blog\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:description\" content=\"All About the Elusive Fernando Pessoa Portuguese poet Fernando Pessoa is probably most famous for putting Portuguese literature on the map internationally. He is also known for Modernist poetry, a literary movement that occurred in the early 20th century. 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